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\chap Introduction

\sec Current radioastronomy problems

From a radioastronomer's point of view, it is important that radioastronomy focuses its interest primarily on natural signals originating in the surrounding universe. It does not pay much attention to the man-made signals created by our civilisation.

However, it is due to these artificial signals, that the current radioastronomy faces a disturbance issue. The issue arises from the fact, that there are so many terrestrial transmitters currently active. All of them are sources of a dense signal mixture which can cause trouble not only to radioastronomers.

As a consequence, there already exists an effort to control the radiofrequency spectrum. As result of attempts to control the radiofrequency spectrum, the frequency allocation table was created \cite[radio-astronomy-frequency]. The radio-frequency allocation table contains special bands allocated to radioastronomy use. However, for many reasons these bands are not clean enough to be used in radioastronomy observations directly. As a result, we cannot work in the same way as did the radioastronomers in the very beginnings of radioastronomy do.  Many experiments, namely Cosmic microwave background detection or pulsar detection, cannot be realised nowadays in their original forms with satisfactory results.

Supporting evidence of such an effect is RadioJOVE project. NASA \glos{NASA}{National Aeronautics and Space Administration} engineers who originally created the  RadioJOVE project had a great idea. The RadioJOVE project brought an opportunity for creating a publicly available, cheap radioastronomy receiver. However, they used an old-fashioned construction design which, on one hand, can operate in unoccupied harsh environments like deserts, but on the other hand it simply did not meet the criteria that would make it possible to be used in modern civilisation, as we know it in Europe \cite[radio-jove].

The source of its dysfunction is a presence of strong radiofrequency interferences. These interferences are orders of magnitude stronger than Jupiter decametric emissions, whose detection was the main aim of the RadioJOVE project.

From what we have already seen in the light pollution mitigation pursuit, there is only a small chance to improve the situation in radiofrequency spectrum radically.

The only way to overcome this problem is to search for new methods of radioastronomy observations, new methods which allows us to work without completely clear radiofrequency bands and which allow us to see the surrounding universe even despite the existence of man-made radiofrequency interference mixture.  One solution is to use already known natural radio frequency signals parameters. Natural signals usually have different signal properties than local interference. Natural objects do not have  problems with transmission in bandwidths of tens of megahertz in sub 100 MHz bands. These objects are usually far away and the same signal could be received at almost half of the Earth globe without any significant differences.  On the other hand, it is obvious that signals with such parameters have some drawbacks, namely in the reception power. The reception power of radioastronomical object is $1 \cdot 10^9$ smaller than signal power received from a typical broadband radio transmitter.

From the above mentioned facts concerning the natural radio signals we can conclude that modern requirements imposed on a radioastronomy receiver are completely different from the requirements existing back in the history. Radioastronomy is no longer limited by an access to electronic components, today it is rather limited by the everywhere presence of electronic.

\sec Radio astronomy receiver

At the beginnings of radioastronomy, the receivers were constructed as simple stations with a single antenna or a multiple antenna array with fixed phasing. This approach was used because of the existing limits of electronic components and technologies. The main challenges of those times were problems of noise number and low sensitivity, both present due to the poor characteristics of active electronic components such as transistors and vacuum tubes.

Most of the present-day operating radioastronomy equipment has been constructed in a similar manner. It was produced usually shortly after the WWII \glos{WWII}{Second World War} or during the Cold War as a part of the military technology.

We have an access today to components with much higher quality, repeatability and a lower price as compared to the components accessible to previous generation of radioastronomers.  That is why we can develop a better radioastronomical equipment, powerful enough to make new astronomical discoveries possible.\fnote{Most of astronomy-related discoveries in the last fifty years came from radioastronomy.}

We have the capacities necessary to develop a receiver which will have a wide bandwidth, a high third-order intercept point and preferably an option for phase and frequency locking to other receivers located at another radioastronomical site at the Earth. Currently there exist several receivers with the above-mentioned parameters, for example USRP2, USRP B210 \glos{USRP}{Universal Software Radio Peripheral} or HackRF, which are commercially available. However all of them lack scalability and have higher prices unaffordable to our amateur radioastronomy network. Scalability and redundancy that are the main requirements of noise reduction algorithms which motivated this diploma project.

New radio astronomy systems such LOFAR\glos{LOFAR}{Low-Frequency Array} are explicit examples of the scalability and redundancy approach. LOFAR has a completely different and novel structure developed to solve the problems of radioastronomy signal reception. It uses exclusively multi-antenna arrays and mathematical algorithms for signal handling. Radio signals recorded by LOFAR can be used in multiple ways: radio images can be computed (if sufficient cover of $u/v$ plane is achieved), the radiation intensity can be measured, the spectrum can be analysed for velocity measurement, etc.

\sec Required receiver parameters

The novel approach of the receiver construction described above goes hand-in-hand with new requirements on receiver parameters as well. No additional attempts to improve the signal-to-noise ratio on single antenna have been performed currently. There are however other parameters requested nowadays.

\secc Sensitivity and noise number

Sensitivity and noise number are parameters that are tied together. However, the requirement for multi-antenna and multi-receiver arrays forces to keep the price of receiver at the minimal value. This implies that the sensitivity and noise number have to be at least so good in the detection (signal $/$ noise $>$ 1 ) of an observed object, that it would be detected on the majority of receivers connected to an observation network.

\secc Dynamic range

\label[dynamic-range-theory]

The dynamic range represents a huge problem of current radioastronomical receivers. This parameter is enforced by humans present everywhere and creating electromagnetic inference (EMI\glos{EMI}{Electromagnetic interference}) radiation on radio frequency (RF\glos{RF}{Radio frequency}) band. The modern radioastronomy receiver must not be saturated by these high levels of signals but still needs to have enough sensitivity to see faint signals from natural sources. The dynamic range is limited either by the construction of the analog circuitry in the receiver or by the digitization unit.

The maximal theoretical dynamic range of analog-to-digital converter (ADC \glos{ADC}{analog-to-digital converter}) could be estimated from ADC bit depth using a following formula~\ref[dynamic-range]

\label[dynamic-range]

$$

D.R. \; [dB] = 20 \cdot \log(2^n) \eqmark

$$

The formula \ref[dynamic-range] provides values shown in Table~\ref[ADC-dynamic-range] below.

\midinsert \clabel[ADC-dynamic-range]{Dynamic range versus bit depth}

\ctable{cc}{

\hfil ADC Bits	& Dynamic range [dB] \cr

    8 &		48 \cr

    10 & 	60 \cr

    12 & 	72 \cr

    14 & 	84 \cr

    16 &	96 \cr

    24	& 	144 \cr

}

\caption/t Standard bit depths of ADC and its theoretical dynamic range.

\endinsert

If we look at the actual spectrum occupancy in Europe (measured in the power spectral density), we see that the signal dynamic range in spectra

easily reaches more than 80 dB above natural noise levels~\cite[spectrum-observatory]. If we do not want to deal with the receiver saturation or the poor sensitivity, we need a receiver and digitization unit which has a comparable dynamical range with received signals. This implies the use of 14 bit ADC at least without any spare of range. However, the 16 bit range should be optimal as we have spare range for the strongest RF signals. Two bytes sample range has in addition a good efficiency in use standard power of 2 data types length. We selected the 16 bit digital range as the optimal one for our design.

\secc Bandwidth

Historically, the bandwidth parameter in radioastronomical receivers used to be within the kilohertz range. Such a narrow bandwidth was acceptable because observations were processed directly by listening or by a paper chart intensity recorder. The chart recorder integrated the energy of a signal over a defined narrow bandwidth which was suitable for detecting the intensity variance of a microwave background. No wide-band transmitters existed in that era (except for TV\glos{TV}{Television} transmitters) and tuning to other neighbouring frequency was easy as they were mostly vacant. Parallel observations from several places were unnecessary as well because the electromagnetic conditions were nearly same at all locations.

\sec State of the art receivers digitalization units

Only few digitalization systems dedicated for radioastronomy currently exists.  Currently existing systems uses either custom design of whole receiver or they are constructed from commercially available components. Open-source principle attempts are very rare in radioastronomy field.

\secc Custom digitalization system

Custom designs usually uses non-recurring engineering  for development specific solution for observation project thus costs of this instruments are very high if developed instrument are not reproduced many times. Typical example of instrument developed and manufactured in one piece with enormous founding resources draws is Arecibo ALFA \glos{ALFA}{Arecibo L-Band Feed Array}  survey multi beam feed Array.

Another opposite example for custom receiver and digitalization unit design is LOFAR system developed by Astron in Netherlands \cite[lofar].

LOFAR is innovative radioastronomy system which uses the phased antenna array approach in enormous scale and thousands (around $2 \cdot 10^4$) of antennas are manufactured an deployed on field. The centrer of LOFAR system is situated in Netherlands and peripheral antennas and connection network are extended to other European countries.

\midinsert

\clabel[lofar-antenna]{Lofar antenna configuration}

\picw=10cm \cinspic ./img/lofar_antenna.jpg

\caption/f One LOFAR LBA \glos{LBA}{Low Band Antenna} antenna element.

\endinsert

LOFAR project must use low cost hardware due to systems scale. Special construction techniques are used to keep overall project budget at acceptable levels (specially designed polystyrene supporting blocks for HBA \glos{HBA}{High Band Antenna} antennas for example). Many of used components are manufactured in mass scale for other than scientific use LBA antennas masts are made from standard PVC \glos{PVC}{Polyvinyl chloride} plastic waste pipes and LOFAR uses low cost direct sampling receiver. Whole project has been designed by Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, which produces many similarly sophisticated devices\cite[astron-devices].

\secc Modular digitalization systems

Due to cost restrictions in science and astronomy instruments development, an reuse of engineering work should be useful. One modular digitalization and data processing system currently exit. It is being developed at Berkley\cite[casper-project]. CASPER \glos{CASPER}{Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research} is in development from around 2005. CASPER's designers an engineers remarkably noticed a lack of such hardware in radioastronomy science, theirs ideas are summarised in paper \cite[casper-paper]. Unfortunately they use proprietary connector standard and technology and develops modular system based purely on Tyco Z-DOK+ connectors family. CASPER data processing board with Z-DOK connectors is shown in picture \ref[casper-roach].  Z-DOK connectors have relatively high pricing (around 40 USD) \cite[Z-DOK-connectors].  Z-DOK connectors are high quality differential pairs connectors, but price of these connectors is comparable with value of one ADC channel in our design described in following part of document.

\midinsert

\clabel[casper-roach]{CASPER's ROACH data processing board}

\picw=10cm \cinspic ./img/Roach2_rev0_2xcx4mezz.jpg

\caption/f CASPER project ROACH-2 \glos{ROACH}{ Reconfigurable Open Architecture Computing Hardware (ROACH) board} data processing board. White Z-DOK connectors for daughter ADC Boards can be easily seen in front.

\endinsert

In opposite to professional astronomers which uses proprietary digitalization units, amateur radioastronomers currently uses multichannel sound cards \cite[amateur-fringes] or self designed digitalisation units. Devices constructed by amateurs are usually non reproducible \cite[amateur-sdr] .  It is evident that current radioastronomy lacks of proper hardware which could be used on both communities - professionals and amateurs. Optimal solution for this situation should be open-source hardware.